fraternalsocnetworks
George Oberle
January 21, 2015
This is a network analysis of a the members of learned societies in the early American republic.
Load tools
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## intersect, setdiff, setequal, unionlibrary (RColorBrewer)## Warning: package 'RColorBrewer' was built under R version 3.1.2library (igraph)Membership Rolls: Collecting Data
It seemed appropriate to start evaluating membership rolls using the American Philosophical Society (APS) and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS).
American Philosophical Society
The APS, founded in Philadelphia, is the oldest learned society established in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin however the society experienced several setbacks. Beginning in 1768 there is a reliable list of elected members available by year at the APS website.
The data available consists of five fields:
- Name: Thomas Bacon
- Year Elected: 1768
- Residency: Resident
- Living : Deceased
- Death Date: 5/24/1768
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, founded in Boston, in 1780 by John Adams and other leaders in Massachusetts to promote the diffusion of knowledge. The online book of members is a .pdf list of names, arranged by year of election and then alphabetically by last name. Following the name there is a series of dates that indicates the birth year and the death year of the corresponding individual. There is a separate listing the names of members that are organized by the appropriate subject category for which the member was elected. These are not cross-listed with the main entry and there is no way to differentiate duplicate names in these listings since there is no birth/death dates. As a result, this data was not gathered at this time however, it may be useful to add should a relevant project surface. In the end, the three common variables seemed to be name, organization and their common status as member. This became the foundation of developing a network analysis chart.
Creating the Spreadsheets
The creation of these lists in a spreadsheet takes significant time inputting the data. This process required a quality control check in place to assure that typos and other mistakes were minimized. Since they are both active institutions a cut off decision had to be made. Due to the nature my original project the cut off date was 1828 since this was Andrew Jackson’s election and clearly outside of the scope of work that Kerber and Green introduced. Evaluating these membership lists was a difficult process without the aid of software due to the large set of names. For example, the American Philosophical Society from 1768-1828 elected 717 members. Likewise, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, founded in 1780, boasted a membership through 1828 that numbered 432 members. It would be impossible for the scholar to memorize every name on the list and it would be daunting to try to manually calculate graphs that demonstrate statistical patterns or to draw a network graph that examined the overlap of these groups. Ultimately, this makes this sort of data a prime candidate for scholars to use R to help visualize the data gathered from membership rolls.
Annual Elected Members
I combined the two lists in a csv file called APSAAAScombined.
#This is helpful showing the annual membership of the APS and the AAAS. It shows patterns of growth of the members.
socdata = read.csv ("~/fraternalsocieties/data/APSAAAScombined.csv")
year <- ggplot(socdata, aes(x=Year.Elected, fill= Organization ))
year + geom_histogram(position = "dodge", binwidth = 1) +
ggtitle("Annual Elected Members of APS and AAAS") + ylab("Total Members Elected") + xlab("Year Elected")
The graph shows that approximately 40% of the elected membership between 1768 and 1828 were categorized as international members. In addition to other possible meanings a scholar may want to consider that the scientific community in this period was a cosmopolitan group that actively engaged each other in order to promote the diffusion of knowledge.
Despite the fact that the AAAS elected foreign members it is interesting to note that they did not distinguish between this types of residency status. This is curious since the AAAS was founded near the end of the Revolutionary War while the APS practice dates from its founding prior to the outbreak of hostilities.
Perhaps even more interesting is viewing the APS residency status by annual elections. This chart shows significant increases in the number of international members following the creation of the AAAS. It is unclear if this is directly connected to the establishment and growth of the AAAS however, it offers some new questions to look into and if it is significant then the scholar can invest the time to identify international members elected into the AAAS in order to compare these institutions. This could be useful to explore several questions including were foreign members added to help bolster the authority of the institution.
socdata %>%
group_by(Year.Elected, Organization) %>%
summarize(n = n()) %>%
ggplot(aes(x=Year.Elected, y= n, color = Organization )) +
geom_line() +
ggtitle("Annual Elected Members of APS and AAAS") + ylab("Total Members Elected") + xlab("Year Elected")
With this visualization, it is easier to observe that both organizations seem to have similar ebbs and flows in their number of elected members. This may suggest that the growth of the societies may be interrelated.
It is also possible that these groups are reacting to each other and adding members to demonstrate the superiority of their institution over the other. This visualization also provides some opportuities to ask new questions. For example, there is a clear decline in the elected membership of the AAAS from about 1815-1820 while there is an unusual increase in membership of the APS. A possible reason for this could be the decline of the Federalists following the Hartford Convention and their opposition to the War of 1812. There are other suggestions by scholars who point out that American science lagged behind that of the advances of the well-funded and mature institutions in Europe and as a result they suggest that the founders sought to create larger and diversified institutions.
Membership Types
Interestingly, as mentioned earlier, the APS divided their membership by residency status as early as 1768 that included international and resident. On the one hand, this indicated that the Philadelphia based society viewed themselves as the primary institution for scientific knowledge in the British colonies, while on the other; the inclusion of the international members provided the institution with additional membership with gravitas. These international members enhanced the credibility of the APS and the authority over the knowledge that it created and diffused across the fledgling nation.
Using the data in the APS membership file we can create a simple bar graph that shows the number of members by their membership status.
dataaps <-read.csv("~/fraternalsocieties/data/apsmembership.csv")
a <- ggplot(dataaps, aes(x=Year.Elected))
a + geom_histogram(binwidth = 1)+ xlab("Year Elected")+ggtitle ("Annual Total Elected Members APS")
This bar graph show that annual elected membership of the APS from 1768-1820. There are a few years, especially during the American Revolution, when there were no elected members. It is particularly illustrative of the British threat to and their occupation of Philadelphia. After their evacuation in 1778 it appears the instituion began to elect members again.
dataaaas <-read.csv("~/fraternalsocieties/data/AAASmembers.csv")
b <- ggplot(dataaaas, aes(x=Year.Elected))
b + geom_histogram(binwidth = 1)+ xlab("Year Elected")+ggtitle ("Annual Total Elected Members AAAS")
APS Resident and International Members
a <- ggplot(dataaps, aes(Residency))
a + geom_bar(width=.5, fill="blue", color="darkblue") + coord_flip()+ggtitle ("Total Elected Members APS by Residency 1768-1828")
The graph shows that approximately 40% of the membership between 1768 and 1828 were categorized as international members. In addition to other possible meanings a scholar may want to consider that the scientific community in this period was a cosmopolitan group that actively engaged each other in order to promote the diffusion of knowledge.
Despite the fact that the AAAS elected foreign members it is interesting to note that they did not distinguish between this types of residency status. This is curious since the AAAS was founded near the end of the Revolutionary War while the APS practice dates from its founding prior to the outbreak of hostilities.
Perhaps even more interesting is viewing the APS residency status by annual elections. This chart shows significant increases in the number of international members following the creation of the AAAS. It is unclear if this is directly connected to the establishment and growth of the AAAS however, it offers some new questions to look into and if it is significant then the scholar can invest the time to identify international members elected into the AAAS in order to compare these institutions. This could be useful to explore several questions including were foreign members added to help bolster the authority of the institution.
dataaps %>%
group_by(Year.Elected, Residency) %>%
summarize(n = n()) %>%
ggplot(aes(x=Year.Elected, y= n, color = Residency )) +
geom_line() +
ggtitle("Annual Elected Members of APS by Residency") + ylab("Total Members Elected") + xlab("Year Elected")
Another significant observation that scholars can make with with this line graph is that there is a significant decline of international members elected during times of international crises like during the War of 1812.
These charts are very good at showing snapshots about specific institutions or even some general characteristics shared between institutions however they do not demonstrate if members belonged to both groups. It may also be useful to explore these shared relationships limiting to specific time frames.
For example in this graph we examine the shared membership before 1812.
socdata %>%
filter(Year.Elected < 1812) %>%
graph.data.frame(directed = FALSE) %>%
plot(vertex.label = NA)
title("APS and AAAS Shared Membership Before 1812")
If we want to view if there were common members elected by year this would be another way to view the data.
socdata %>%
filter(Year.Elected ==1781) %>%
graph.data.frame(directed = FALSE) %>%
plot(vertex.label = NA) #TODO add names
title("APS and AAAS Shared Membership 1781")
Scholarly Societies in the Early Republic
The proceeding membership charts provide useful information about these two specific organizations however; they don’t provide a context about the growing number of societies and other knowledge institutions in the early republic. An additional resource to be exploited comes from the Scholarly Societies Project, an online directory of over 4,000 scholarly societies. By harvesting the data gathered by Jim Parrott and maintained by the University of Waterloo Library from 1994-2009, scholars can develop strategies to test analytical methods with a small and reliable data set. This is an important practice before adding more complexity to a historical programming project. Still there seemed to be an increadible growth in these societies as documented by the number of associations documented in the data and by observers at the time like earlier Alexis de Toqueville.
Despite the fact that this is an excellent source there are a few challenges. First, the data is housed on multiple webpages and is structured differently on the different pages therefore it is difficult to scrape. Instead, it can be entered manually in a csv file. Second, despite the breadth of the project there are gaps. For example the Agricultural Society of Albemarle was not included in the origninal data of early scholarly socities founded before 1849 in the United States. References to the site and members is found in several sources like in the papers of its first president, and President of the United States, James Madison. I have added this and a few others and I hope that colleagues will work together to add more over time. Therefore the file will be available for edit via github.
Once the initial datafile is prepared it is helpful to identify some core data elements that may be helpful to use to visualize. In addition to the location there are other helpful elements to use. For example, the Date.Established and the column that defines the type of society, identified in the Society column can be used to produce an interesting graph. The Society column defines the purpose of the society based on the mission of the society. Agricultural and mechanical societies promoted education and learning that supported practicioners of those arts. The Letters grouping combines those identified as literature or historical in nature. Medical socities supported the growing medical profession. Specialized institutions included specialized scientific societies like the Academy of Natural Sciences or the Chemical Society of Philadelphia.Finally, universal societies were modeled as institutions that were designed to be wide-ranging and encompass all aspects of knowledge like the APS and the AAAS.
A simple graph of this outlines the growth in these specialized societies below.
early_learned <- read.csv("~/fraternalsocieties/data/scholarlysocieties.csv")
type <- ggplot(early_learned, aes (x=Society))
type+ geom_histogram() + theme(axis.text.x = element_text(face = "bold", angle = 60, hjust = 1, size = 8)) +ggtitle("Learned Societies by Type") + ylab("Total Established") + xlab ("Type of Society")
This chart provides little context or nuance to the observer. Instead, if we include a graph that provides dates we get a much more useful tool.
typedate <- ggplot(early_learned, aes (x=Date.Established, fill=Society))
typedate+ geom_histogram(position= "stack", binwidth= 10) + theme(axis.text.x = element_text(face = "bold", angle = 60, hjust = 1, size = 8)) +ggtitle("Learned Societies by Date Established") + ylab("Total Established") + xlab ("Year Established")
This graphic clearly shows a pattern of growth occuring away from universal knowledge organizations and toward the establishment of specialized institutions. This may be due to the development of protoprofessional organizations or it may indicate that with democracy there is also a fragmentation of knowledge.
Once the data is gathered and loaded it became clear that it may be useful to assign geographic coordinates to the site. Google’s api can be used to affix these codes however it requires city and state to be in the same column. Using dplyr we can add a column that pasted the data from the seperate City and State columns into a new column called location. Following that we can add this new column back to the original data frame and then run the Google api. Finally we can view the file and save it.
#Maps-Scholarly Societies Begin
#These are the steps to add geocoding and save it.
#schol_soc <- read.csv("~/fraternalsocieties/data/scholarlysocieties.csv")
#schol_soc<- schol_soc%>%
#mutate(location=paste (City, State))
#location_geocoded <- geocode(schol_soc$location)
#schol_soc_geocoded <- cbind(schol_soc, location_geocoded)
#schol_soc_geocoded
#write.csv(schol_soc_geocoded, file = "schol-soc-geocoded.csv")
schol_soc_geocoded <- read.csv("~/fraternalsocieties/data/schol-soc-geocoded.csv")Some scholars point out that the expansive distances in the United States encouraged the development of different learned societies. This has been suggested by historians that study the history of science and also many historians of higher education make those points as well. It might be helpful to map this data and also to begin to compare maps between the growth of colleges and those of learned societies, and museums and libraries.
In order to map the societies it is useful to utilize existing shape files from the NHGIS and to prepare them for use.
#Get the Shape files read and make sure that they work using these commands.
map_sp <- readOGR("nhgis-shp/", "state_1840")## OGR data source with driver: ESRI Shapefile
## Source: "nhgis-shp/", layer: "state_1840"
## with 31 features and 7 fields
## Feature type: wkbPolygon with 2 dimensionsclass(map_sp)## [1] "SpatialPolygonsDataFrame"
## attr(,"package")
## [1] "sp"str(map_sp, max.level = 2)## Formal class 'SpatialPolygonsDataFrame' [package "sp"] with 5 slots
## ..@ data :'data.frame': 31 obs. of 7 variables:
## ..@ polygons :List of 31
## ..@ plotOrder : int [1:31] 23 15 3 27 20 9 19 4 7 24 ...
## ..@ bbox : num [1:2, 1:2] -114.1 24.5 -67 49.4
## .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 2
## ..@ proj4string:Formal class 'CRS' [package "sp"] with 1 slotsmap_sp@bbox## min max
## x -114.06815 -66.95211
## y 24.54479 49.38436map_sp@proj4string## CRS arguments:
## +proj=longlat +datum=WGS84 +no_defs +ellps=WGS84 +towgs84=0,0,0head(map_sp@data)## NHGISST ICPSRST STATENAM GISJOIN GISJOIN2 SHAPE_AREA
## 0 370 47 North Carolina G370 370 127827660541
## 1 250 3 Massachusetts G250 250 21030126218
## 2 555 <NA> Wisconsin Territory G555 555 221290537120
## 3 130 44 Georgia G130 130 152212842801
## 4 390 24 Ohio G390 390 106869524366
## 5 500 6 Vermont G500 500 24900407113
## SHAPE_LEN
## 0 8727205.4
## 1 2716619.9
## 2 4785532.3
## 3 3821114.5
## 4 1865383.9
## 5 915268.8plot(map_sp)
map1830<- readOGR ("nhgis-shp" , "state_1830")## OGR data source with driver: ESRI Shapefile
## Source: "nhgis-shp", layer: "state_1830"
## with 29 features and 7 fields
## Feature type: wkbPolygon with 2 dimensionsfort<- fortify (map1830)## Regions defined for each Polygonsmap1840<- readOGR ("nhgis-shp" , "state_1840")## OGR data source with driver: ESRI Shapefile
## Source: "nhgis-shp", layer: "state_1840"
## with 31 features and 7 fields
## Feature type: wkbPolygon with 2 dimensionsfort2<- fortify (map1840)## Regions defined for each PolygonsAfter preparing the map files and fortifying the shape files we can use the data schol_soc_geocoded that we prepared earlier and then apply that to the 1840 map file that we just prepared. Using the type of society from the Society column we can graph where the types of societies were located between 1768-1849.
ggplot () + geom_map(data=fort2, map=fort2, aes(x=long, y=lat, group=group, map_id=id), color="grey", fill="white") +geom_point(data=schol_soc_geocoded, size=3, aes (x=lon, y=lat, color=Society) ) + coord_map() +ggtitle('Early American Learned Societies by Type 1768-1848')
early_colleges_geocoded <-read.csv ("~/fraternalsocieties/data/early_colleges_geocoded.csv")
ggplot () + geom_map(data=fort, map=fort, aes(x=long, y=lat, group=group, map_id=id), color="black", fill="white") +geom_point(data=early_colleges_geocoded, aes (x=lon, y=lat), color="red") + coord_map()
ggplot () + geom_map(data=fort2, map=fort2, aes(x=long, y=lat, group=group, map_id=id), color="grey", fill="white") +geom_point(data=early_colleges_geocoded, size=4, aes (x=lon, y=lat, color=factor(period), shape=factor(period)) ) + coord_map()
Scholarly Societies Connected with the Establishment of the Columbian College
In 1821, Congress passed, and President James Monroe authorized, the creation of the Columbian College. This institution, formed by Luther Rice, an active Baptist missionary and minister, would become the George Washington University. Many saw this insitution as the fulfillment of the many years of debates about the need for a national university. Still there were many that believed this institution was the antithesis of the vision of the founders and they resented that this institution was established by sectarian leaders for sectarian purposes. There was serious tensions from those that a national university should be focused on scientific education and secular. Using a network analysis map we may be able to detect if the founders of the college had shared memberships with other learned societies that supported the establishment of a national university. This is a pilot to see if this work can be useful to find connections and distinctions between larger groups a networks.
The network data consists of 2024 observations and 3 variables. The variables include name, organization and status. The status of all of the observations is member.
data = read.csv("~/fraternalsocieties/data/learnmembabrev.csv")
data2 =read.csv("~/fraternalsocieties/data/learnedmembersnetwork.csv")After reading the data this sample set of membership lists from societies that had known connections to the national university. The list has 2024 members lists coming from 8 organizations.
Society Names * MSPA Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; * Medical Society of the District of Columbia; * Massachusetts Medical Society; * Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences; * Columbian Agricultural Society; * Baptist General Convention; * American Philosophical Society; * American Academy of Arts and Sciences
The following graph shows the distribution of the number members by organization.
b <- ggplot(data, aes(Organization))
b + geom_bar(width=.5, fill="blue", color="darkblue") + coord_flip() +ggtitle ("Total Elected Members APS by Residency 1768-1828")+ggtitle ("Total Members of Societies Connected to National University 1768-1828")
This graph gives useful information about the relative sizeof the various groups. A surprising find from this is that the Massachusetts Medical Society ad a larger set of members than the American Academy of Arts and Sciences by 1828.These charts cannot provide us with any new information regarding the shared relationships. To do this scholars like Kieran Healey have turned to network analysis. see-http://kieranhealy.org/blog/archives/2013/06/18/a-co-citation-network-for-philosophy/
data_members <- graph.data.frame(data, directed = FALSE)
plot (data_members, vertex.label = NA)
title("Supporters of Founding a National Univesity", sub = "A network graph of members",cex.main = 2, font.main= 4, col.main= "blue", cex.sub = 0.75, font.sub = 3, col.sub = "red")
Notice this graph does not have labels so it does not seem to be very helpful. It is interesting to observe that some vertices seem to stand off on their own. This indicates that they have multiple relationships with groups. Those that have similar relationships like a shared membership between the AAAS and MMS do not stand out very much. However there is one member that seems to stand out distinctly due to his membership. If we add labels we may get other clues to who or what is linked yet set off on their own.
data_members <- graph.data.frame(data, directed = FALSE)
plot (data_members)
title("Supporters of Founding a National Univesity", sub = "A network graph of members with name labels",cex.main = 2, font.main= 4, col.main= "blue", cex.sub = 0.75, font.sub = 3, col.sub = "red")
This plot produces series of groups of members that are clumped together and are difficult to read because the names are on top of each other. There are a few visible names that show up depending on how the graph is drawn however the one name that always is visible is of William Staughton. These names offer leads to follow. What places these people apart from the nested sets of illegible names?
Creating a bipartite layout and display of relationships may help with developing a more effective display of how these people relate to each other. Currently, the members and the organizations are all vertices. Generally it is better to only have like things in a network graph however, a bipartite graph will divide the two distinctive sets of vertices and assure that they only appear on one part or another. In this case the name vertex is connected to the organization vertex by the edge which is the member status. This can be done using this set of code:
V(data_members)## Vertex sequence:
## [1] "John Adams"
## [2] "Samuel Adams"
## [3] "John Bacon"
## [4] "James Bowdoin"
## [5] "Charles Chauncy"
## [6] "John Clarke"
## [7] "David Cobb"
## [8] "Samuel Cooper"
## [9] "Nathan Cushing"
## [10] "Thomas Cushing"
## [11] "William Cushing"
## [12] "Tristram Dalton"
## [13] "Francis Dalton"
## [14] "Samuel Deane"
## [15] "Perez Fobes"
## [16] "Caleb Gannett"
## [17] "Henry Gardner"
## [18] "Benjamin Guild"
## [19] "John Hancock"
## [20] "Joseph Hawley"
## [21] "Edward Augustus Holyoke"
## [22] "Ebenezer Hunt"
## [23] "Jonathan Jackson"
## [24] "Charles Jarvis"
## [25] "Samuel Langdon"
## [26] "Levi Lincoln"
## [27] "Daniel Little"
## [28] "Elijah Lothrop"
## [29] "John Lowell"
## [30] "Samuel Mather"
## [31] "Samuel Moody"
## [32] "Andrew Oliver"
## [33] "Joseph Orne"
## [34] "Robert Treat Paine"
## [35] "Theodore Parsons"
## [36] "George Partridge"
## [37] "Phillips Payson"
## [38] "Samuel Phillips"
## [39] "John Pickering"
## [40] "Oliver Prescott"
## [41] "Zedekiah Sanger"
## [42] "Nathaniel Peaslee Sargeant"
## [43] "Micajah Sawyer"
## [44] "Theodore Sedgwick"
## [45] "William Sever"
## [46] "David Sewall"
## [47] "Stephen Sewall"
## [48] "John Sprague"
## [49] "Ebenezer Storer"
## [50] "Caleb Strong"
## [51] "James Sulliivan"
## [52] "John Barnard Swett"
## [53] "Nathaniel Tracy"
## [54] "Cotton Tufts"
## [55] "James Warren"
## [56] "Samuel West"
## [57] "Edward Wigglesworth"
## [58] "Joseph Willard"
## [59] "Abraham Williams"
## [60] "Nehemiah Williams"
## [61] "Samuel Williams"
## [62] "James Winthrop"
## [63] "Francois Barbe Marbois"
## [64] "Joseph Brown"
## [65] "Francois Jean Chastellux"
## [66] "Antoine Court de Geblin"
## [67] "Richard Cranch"
## [68] "Manasseh Cutler"
## [69] "Jean le Rond d Alembert"
## [70] "Timothy Danielson"
## [71] "Anne Cesar de la Luzerne"
## [72] "Timothy Edwards"
## [73] "Benjamin Franklin"
## [74] "Benjamin Gale"
## [75] "Elbridge Gerry"
## [76] "Ebenezer Hazard"
## [77] "Simeon Howard"
## [78] "Joseph Jerome le Francais Lalande"
## [79] "Benjamin Lincoln"
## [80] "Samuel Osgood"
## [81] "Theophilus Parson"
## [82] "Eliphat Pearson"
## [83] "Ezra Stiles"
## [84] "Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin"
## [85] "John Warren"
## [86] "George Washington"
## [87] "Benjamin West"
## [88] "Loammi Baldwin"
## [89] "Owen Biddle"
## [90] "Georges Georges Louis Buffon"
## [91] "Comte de Leclerc"
## [92] "Leonhard Euler"
## [93] "Jacques Constant de Guillaume Liberge de Granchain"
## [94] "Jacques Constant de Guillaume"
## [95] "Comte de Liberge"
## [96] "Thomas Brand Hollis"
## [97] "Arthur Lee"
## [98] "William Livingston"
## [99] "Richard Price"
## [100] "Joseph Priestley"
## [101] "David Rittenhouse"
## [102] "Jonathan Trumbull"
## [103] "Meshech Weare"
## [104] "Edme Sebastien Jeaurat"
## [105] "Thomas Dawes"
## [106] "Aaron Dexter"
## [107] "William Erving"
## [108] "Joshua Fisher"
## [109] "Samuel Hale"
## [110] "Samuel Gustaf Hermelin"
## [111] "John Sparhawk"
## [112] "Jeremy Belknap"
## [113] "Petter Jonas Bergius"
## [114] "Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier de Lafayette Marquis de Lafayette "
## [115] "Henry Moyes"
## [116] "John Prince"
## [117] "Luigi Castiglioni"
## [118] "Jean Feron"
## [119] "John Jones Spooner"
## [120] "Samuel Vaughan Sr"
## [121] "Nathaniel Wells"
## [122] "Thomas Jefferson"
## [123] "Noah Atwater"
## [124] "Joseph Banks"
## [125] "George Cabot"
## [126] "Jean Dominque Cassini"
## [127] "Johann Jacob Hemmer"
## [128] "William Herschel"
## [129] "Thomas Hornsby"
## [130] "Charles Hutton"
## [131] "John Coakley Lettsom"
## [132] "Nevil Maskelyne"
## [133] "Nicholas Pike"
## [134] "Joseph Pope"
## [135] "Benjamin Rush"
## [136] "Thomas Russell"
## [137] "Winthrop Sargent"
## [138] "Jonathan Stokes"
## [139] "Richard Watson"
## [140] "Pedro Francisco Jimenez de Gongora y Lujan Duque deAlmodovar del Rio"
## [141] "Nathaniel Walker Appleton"
## [142] "William Baylies"
## [143] "Charles Blagden"
## [144] "Jacques Pierre Brissot de Warville"
## [145] "Antoine Marie Cerisier"
## [146] "Samuel Danforth"
## [147] "Charles William Frederick Dumas"
## [148] "John Haygarth"
## [149] "Edmund Jennings"
## [150] "Richard Kirwan"
## [151] "Jean Luzac"
## [152] "Archibald Maclaine"
## [153] "George Richards Minot"
## [154] "Thomas Percival"
## [155] "Frederik Willem Pestel"
## [156] "Samuel Webber"
## [157] "Joseph Philippe de Etombe"
## [158] "Solomon Drown"
## [159] "George Erving"
## [160] "John Howard"
## [161] "Johann Wilhelm Karl Adolph Freiherr Hupsch"
## [162] "John Jay"
## [163] "Samuel Kirkland"
## [164] "John Lathrop"
## [165] "Samuel Shaw"
## [166] "Grimur Jonsson Thorkelin"
## [167] "Robert Young"
## [168] "Charles Bulfinch"
## [169] "John Singleton Copley"
## [170] "John Cranch"
## [171] "Samuel Dexter"
## [172] "Alexander Hamilton"
## [173] "William Paine"
## [174] "Nathan Read"
## [175] "Increase Sumner"
## [176] "Samuel Tenney"
## [177] "John Trumbull"
## [178] "John Davis"
## [179] "Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Cariat Condorcet"
## [180] "William Hamilton"
## [181] "Joseph Lathrop"
## [182] "John Mellen Jr"
## [183] "Fisher Ames"
## [184] "Benjamin Smith Barton"
## [185] "Oliver Everett"
## [186] "James Freeman"
## [187] "William Dandridge Peck"
## [188] "Nathaniel Appleton"
## [189] "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach"
## [190] "Benjamin Dearborn"
## [191] "James Madison"
## [192] "Louis Valentin"
## [193] "Charles Vaughan"
## [194] "Benjamin Waterhouse"
## [195] "Thomas Welsh"
## [196] "Thomas Brattle"
## [197] "Christopher Gore"
## [198] "Joseph McKeen"
## [199] "Jedidiah Morse"
## [200] "Isaac Rand"
## [201] "William Spooner"
## [202] "David Tappan"
## [203] "Peter Thacher"
## [204] "John Quincy Adams"
## [205] "Edward Bancroft"
## [206] "Timothy Dwight"
## [207] "John Haliburton"
## [208] "Samuel Latham Mitchill"
## [209] "John Sinclair"
## [210] "Thomas Barnard"
## [211] "Theophilus Bradbury"
## [212] "Mather Brown"
## [213] "Franz Xaver von Zach"
## [214] "Nathaniel Bowditch"
## [215] "John Thornton Kirkland"
## [216] "Edward Hutchinson Robbins"
## [217] "Noah Webster"
## [218] "Benjamin DeWitt"
## [219] "William Falconer"
## [220] "William Paterson"
## [221] "Samuel Sewall"
## [222] "Edward Jenner"
## [223] "Timothy Bigelow"
## [224] "Oliver Ellsworth"
## [225] "William Emerson"
## [226] "Abiel Holmes"
## [227] "Benard Edward Howard"
## [228] "William Petty Fitzmaurice Lansdowne"
## [229] "Allan Pollock"
## [230] "Josiah Quincy"
## [231] "James Thacher"
## [232] "Caspar Wistar"
## [233] "David Humphreys"
## [234] "Joseph Lyman"
## [235] "John Marshall"
## [236] "Harrison Gray Otis"
## [237] "Joshua Thomas"
## [238] "Gustav von Paykull"
## [239] "Henry Ware"
## [240] "Aaron Bancroft"
## [241] "John Eliot"
## [242] "Levi Hedge"
## [243] "Rufus King"
## [244] "Henry Knox"
## [245] "Olof Peter Swartz"
## [246] "John Treadwell"
## [247] "Benjamin Vaughan"
## [248] "Samuel Eliot"
## [249] "Thaddeus Mason Harris"
## [250] "Daniel Kilham"
## [251] "Dudley Atkins Tyng"
## [252] "Thomas Thacher"
## [253] "Francis Adrian Van der Kemp"
## [254] "John Allyn"
## [255] "Stephen Elliott"
## [256] "John Farrar"
## [257] "Silvain Godon"
## [258] "John Clarke Howard"
## [259] "James Jackson"
## [260] "John Snelling Popkin"
## [261] "Constantine Samuel Rafinesque Schmaltz"
## [262] "John Collins Warren"
## [263] "Sidney Willard"
## [264] "Joseph Stevens Buckminster"
## [265] "William Ellery Channing"
## [266] "Parker Cleaveland"
## [267] "William Cranch"
## [268] "Cornelis De Gijselaar"
## [269] "John Pierce"
## [270] "Charles Stearns"
## [271] "Thomas Boylston Adams"
## [272] "Jesse Appleton"
## [273] "Loammi Baldwin Jr"
## [274] "Oliver Fiske"
## [275] "John Gorham"
## [276] "James Mann"
## [277] "John Phillips"
## [278] "Eliphalet Porter"
## [279] "George Cheyne Shattuck"
## [280] "William Smith Shaw"
## [281] "Joseph Story"
## [282] "John Langdon Sullivan"
## [283] "Richard Sullivan"
## [284] "Redford Webster"
## [285] "Josiah Bartlett"
## [286] "Elisha Clap"
## [287] "James Dean"
## [288] "James Lloyd"
## [289] "Reuben Dimond Mussey"
## [290] "Isaac Parker"
## [291] "Samuel Cooper Thacher"
## [292] "Ebenezer Adams"
## [293] "Jacob Bigelow"
## [294] "Archibald Bruce"
## [295] "Henry Channing"
## [296] "Daniel Chipman"
## [297] "Charles Etter"
## [298] "Gotthelf Friedrich Fischer von Waldheim"
## [299] "Nicolaus von Fuss"
## [300] "Frederick Hall"
## [301] "Horace Holley"
## [302] "George Gardner Lee"
## [303] "Ichabod Nichols"
## [304] "Benjamin Lynde Oliver"
## [305] "Elijah Paine"
## [306] "Friedrich Theodor Schubert"
## [307] "Peter Oxenbridge Thacher"
## [308] "Joseph Tilden"
## [309] "John Dexter Treadwell"
## [310] "Daniel Appleton White"
## [311] "Leonard Woods"
## [312] "Rufus Wyman"
## [313] "Robert Adrian"
## [314] "Jeremiah Day"
## [315] "John Garnett"
## [316] "George Gibbs"
## [317] "Jacob Perkins"
## [318] "Abraham Rees"
## [319] "Asahel Stearns"
## [320] "William Sullivan"
## [321] "Samuel Swett"
## [322] "William Wells"
## [323] "Thomas Lindall Winthrop"
## [324] "Samuel Cary"
## [325] "Jose Francisco Correa de Serra"
## [326] "Jean Antoine Fabre"
## [327] "Levi Frisbie"
## [328] "David Hosack"
## [329] "Andrews Norton"
## [330] "Timothy Pickering"
## [331] "Benjamin Pickman"
## [332] "William Prescott"
## [333] "Benjamin Silliman"
## [334] "Horatio Gates Spafford"
## [335] "Moses Stuart"
## [336] "DeWitt Clinton"
## [337] "Joseph Green Cogswell"
## [338] "Samuel Willard"
## [339] "Charles Jackson"
## [340] "Dugald Stewart"
## [341] "Walter Channing"
## [342] "Chester Dewey"
## [343] "George Hayward"
## [344] "Benjamin Hobhouse"
## [345] "Bezaleel Howard"
## [346] "Daniel Drake"
## [347] "Francis Calley Gray"
## [348] "Nathan Hale"
## [349] "Peter Stephen Du Ponceau"
## [350] "Edward Everett"
## [351] "Francis Vergnies"
## [352] "Daniel Webster"
## [353] "George Ticknor"
## [354] "Claude Louis Berthollet"
## [355] "Jons Jacob Berzelius"
## [356] "Jean Baptiste Biot"
## [357] "David Brewster"
## [358] "John Brinkley"
## [359] "Johann Karl Burckhardt"
## [360] "Johann Tobias Burg"
## [361] "Georges Leopold Cuvier"
## [362] "Humphry Davy"
## [363] "Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre"
## [364] "Carl Freidrich Gauss"
## [365] "Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt"
## [366] "Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt"
## [367] "Pierre Simon Laplace"
## [368] "Bernhard August Lindenau"
## [369] "Barthold Georg Niebuhr"
## [370] "Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers"
## [371] "Simeon Denis Poisson"
## [372] "John Pond"
## [373] "William Hyde Wollaston"
## [374] "Thomas Young"
## [375] "William Allen"
## [376] "John Brazer"
## [377] "Edward Tyrell Channing"
## [378] "Caleb Cushing"
## [379] "Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn"
## [380] "Enoch Hale"
## [381] "William Jackson Hooker"
## [382] "Samuel Howe"
## [383] "Samuel Farmar Jarvis"
## [384] "Thomas Nutall"
## [385] "Samuel Parkes"
## [386] "Willard Phillips"
## [387] "Lemuel Shaw"
## [388] "Daniel Stansbury"
## [389] "Daniel Treadwell"
## [390] "John Ware"
## [391] "John White Webster"
## [392] "Joseph Emerson Worcester"
## [393] "James Trecothick Austin"
## [394] "George Blake"
## [395] "Alexander Hill Everett"
## [396] "Robert Hare"
## [397] "Samuel Hoar"
## [398] "Samuel Putnam"
## [399] "Leverett Saltonstall"
## [400] "James Savage"
## [401] "Adam Seybert"
## [402] "Henry James Brooke"
## [403] "William Buckland"
## [404] "Johann Gottfried Eichhorn"
## [405] "John Murray Forbes"
## [406] "James Luce Kingsley"
## [407] "Manuel Moreno"
## [408] "Octavius Pickering"
## [409] "Joel Roberts Poinsett"
## [410] "Jared Sparks"
## [411] "Samuel Sumner Wilde"
## [412] "Washington Allston"
## [413] "Charles Davies"
## [414] "Warren Colburn"
## [415] "George Barrell Emerson"
## [416] "Charles Folsom"
## [417] "Thaddeus William Harris"
## [418] "Solomon Pearson Miles"
## [419] "Johann Georg Heinrich Hassel"
## [420] "Julius von Wallenstein"
## [421] "Thomas Bacon"
## [422] "Lynford Lardner"
## [423] "Francis L Lee"
## [424] "Samuel Bowen"
## [425] "Richard Brooke"
## [426] "Landon Carter"
## [427] "Daniel Clark"
## [428] "Myles Cooper"
## [429] "John Jones"
## [430] "Carolus Linnaeus"
## [431] "John Lorimer"
## [432] "John M Otto"
## [433] "Ebenezer Prime"
## [434] "Samuel Shoemaker"
## [435] "Earl William Alexander"
## [436] "Joel Bailey"
## [437] "Joseph Ellicott"
## [438] "James Ferguson"
## [439] "John Fothergill"
## [440] "Joseph Gilpin"
## [441] "George Guald"
## [442] "John David Hahn"
## [443] "John Morell"
## [444] "Edward Nairne"
## [445] "John Baynton"
## [446] "Henry Benbridge"
## [447] "Samuel Filsted"
## [448] "Archibald Gloucester"
## [449] "Henry Hill"
## [450] "Frederick W von Marschall"
## [451] "Charles A McCall"
## [452] "Samuel Preston Moore"
## [453] "Charles Morton"
## [454] "Joseph Otolenge"
## [455] "William Parr"
## [456] "Thomas Preston"
## [457] "Samuel Rhoads"
## [458] "Richard Thomas"
## [459] "Stephen Adye"
## [460] "Gerard Bancker"
## [461] "Daniel Coxe"
## [462] "Peter Dolland"
## [463] "Thomas Hutchins"
## [464] "Timothy Lane"
## [465] "Henry Laurens"
## [466] "Jesse Lukens"
## [467] "Arch McClean"
## [468] "George Milligan"
## [469] "John Montresor"
## [470] "Tobern Bergmann"
## [471] "Thomas Coombe"
## [472] "Baron von Timotheus M Klingstadt"
## [473] "William Ludlam"
## [474] "Jean B Le Roy"
## [475] "Alexander Small"
## [476] "James Tilton"
## [477] "Nicholas Way"
## [478] "James Bringhurst"
## [479] "William Bryant"
## [480] "Sharp Delany"
## [481] "Andrew Duncan"
## [482] "Bryan Edwards"
## [483] "John Ellis"
## [484] "Jonathan Elmer"
## [485] "George Gauld"
## [486] "Walter Jones"
## [487] "James McClurg"
## [488] "Samuel More"
## [489] "Benjamin Morgan"
## [490] "Thomas Parke"
## [491] "John Perkins"
## [492] "Bernard Romans"
## [493] "Lord Mahon Charles Stanhope"
## [494] "Lord Mahon Philips Stanhope"
## [495] "William Wright"
## [496] "Charles Adams"
## [497] "Jacques Barbeu Dubourg"
## [498] "Marquis de M J A N Caritat Condorcet"
## [499] "Louis J M Daubenton"
## [500] "Fortunatus Dwarris"
## [501] "Thomas Gibbons"
## [502] "Samuel Holland"
## [503] "Antoine L Lavoisier"
## [504] "Pierre J Macquer"
## [505] "Benjamin Moseley"
## [506] "Guillaume T F Raynall"
## [507] "Le Roux"
## [508] "Jean F Rozier"
## [509] "George Duffield"
## [510] "James Hutchinson"
## [511] "Charles Pettit"
## [512] "Conrad A Gerard de Rayneval"
## [513] "Jean Joseph Sue"
## [514] "Marquis de Francois Barbe Marbois"
## [515] "William Brown"
## [516] "William Carmichael"
## [517] "Arthur St Clair"
## [518] "Robert Erskine"
## [519] "William Grayson"
## [520] "William C Houston"
## [521] "J C Kunze"
## [522] "John Laurens"
## [523] "Anne C de la Luaerne"
## [524] "Rev James Madison"
## [525] "Timothy Matlack"
## [526] "Baron Friedrich W von Steuben"
## [527] "Jean Baptiste Ternant"
## [528] "Charles Vallancey"
## [529] "Anthony Wayne"
## [530] "Thomas Bee"
## [531] "Marquis de Francois J Chastellux"
## [532] "Isaac Gray"
## [533] "Jared Ingersoll"
## [534] "Marquis de Motier Theodore Lafayette"
## [535] "Hugh Shiell"
## [536] "Chevalier d Charles F A Le Paulmier Annemours"
## [537] "John Beale Bordley"
## [538] "Jean F Coste"
## [539] "Robert Davidson"
## [540] "Felice Fontana"
## [541] "Antoine Court de Gebilin"
## [542] "Samuel Huntingdon"
## [543] "Robert M Patterson"
## [544] "Comte Charles C Labillarderie Angivillier"
## [545] "Peter J Van Berckel"
## [546] "Barnabas Binney"
## [547] "Robert Blackwell"
## [548] "Fred F S de Brahm"
## [549] "Pedro Rodriguez Campomanes"
## [550] "John Dunlap"
## [551] "John Foulke"
## [552] "George Fox"
## [553] "Arch Gamble"
## [554] "George Gray"
## [555] "J H C Helmuth"
## [556] "Thomas Heyward"
## [557] "Rev Samuel Magaw"
## [558] "John H de Magellan"
## [559] "Jonathan D Sergeant"
## [560] "James Six"
## [561] "John Vaughan"
## [562] "Samuel Vaughan"
## [563] "Comte de Charles G Vergennes"
## [564] "Frederick E F Bertholff"
## [565] "Comte de Luc Urbain du Bouexic"
## [566] "William Bradford"
## [567] "Edward Burd"
## [568] "John Carson"
## [569] "Adair Crawford"
## [570] "Andrew Ellicott"
## [571] "Samuel Powel Griffiths"
## [572] "Samuel G Hermelin"
## [573] "Sir William Herschel"
## [574] "Hugh James"
## [575] "Thaddeus Kosciusko"
## [576] "Joseph Mandrillion"
## [577] "James McHenry"
## [578] "Christian F Michailis"
## [579] "Henry E Muhlenberg"
## [580] "Mann Page"
## [581] "Thomas Paine"
## [582] "William Parker"
## [583] "Robert Perceval"
## [584] "Samuel S Smith"
## [585] "Jean Baptiste Sue"
## [586] "George Wall"
## [587] "Benjamin Workman"
## [588] "James Beattie"
## [589] "Pierre J G Cabanis"
## [590] "Conte Luigi Castiglioni"
## [591] "Jacques A C Charles"
## [592] "George Clymer"
## [593] "Lorenz Crell"
## [594] "Benjamin Duffield"
## [595] "Aime A J Feutry"
## [596] "William Temple Franklin"
## [597] "Thibert Garbier"
## [598] "Rene G Gastelier"
## [599] "Granchain"
## [600] "Guillaume Grivel"
## [601] "Thomas Henry"
## [602] "Jonathan Hoge"
## [603] "Jan Ingenhousz"
## [604] "John Andrews"
## [605] "John Morris"
## [606] "Robert Morris"
## [607] "Nicolas Noel"
## [608] "Charles Willson Peale"
## [609] "Robert E Pine"
## [610] "William Rawle"
## [611] "Duc de Louis A La Rochefoucauld d Enville"
## [612] "Julien D Le Roy"
## [613] "Jean L G Soulavie"
## [614] "Louis G Le Veillard"
## [615] "Charles H Wharton"
## [616] "John Whitehurst"
## [617] "William Baker"
## [618] "Sir Joseph Banks"
## [619] "Robert Barclay"
## [620] "Thomas Barnes"
## [621] "William Barton"
## [622] "John Bayard"
## [623] "William Bingham"
## [624] "Louis C Cadet Gassicourt"
## [625] "Benjamin Chew"
## [626] "Isaac Craig"
## [627] "Enoch Edwards"
## [628] "John Hunter"
## [629] "Joseph James"
## [630] "Francis Johnston"
## [631] "John Johnston"
## [632] "Charles Lennox"
## [633] "Hon John Lowell"
## [634] "Robert Milligan"
## [635] "Sir Edward Newenham"
## [636] "Comte Louis G Otto"
## [637] "John R B Rodgers"
## [638] "Thomas Ruston"
## [639] "William W Smith"
## [640] "George Spence"
## [641] "William Thornton"
## [642] "George Vaux"
## [643] "Antoine A F Cadet de Vaux"
## [644] "Thomas White"
## [645] "Jonathan Williams"
## [646] "Simeon De Witt"
## [647] "Burgiss Allison"
## [648] "Charles Arthaud"
## [649] "Samuel Beach"
## [650] "Sir Charles Blagden"
## [651] "John Bleakley"
## [652] "David Brearly"
## [653] "Jean P Brissot"
## [654] "George Buchanan"
## [655] "Pieter Camper"
## [656] "Nicholas Collin"
## [657] "John Cox"
## [658] "Michel G St J de Crevecoeur"
## [659] "Princess Catherine Ekaterina Dashkova"
## [660] "William Findley"
## [661] "Jos M de Flores"
## [662] "Diego de Gardoqui"
## [663] "Francis de Gardoqui"
## [664] "Peter Le Gaux"
## [665] "Ashbel Green"
## [666] "Friedrich A von Heintz"
## [667] "Joshua Humphreys"
## [668] "Walter Minto"
## [669] "George Monroe"
## [670] "Mekeric L E Moreau"
## [671] "C C Pinckney"
## [672] "Thomas Pole"
## [673] "David Redick"
## [674] "Benjamin Rittenhouse"
## [675] "James Rumsey"
## [676] "Franz A Steinsky"
## [677] "John Stevens"
## [678] "Charles Stuart"
## [679] "James Wilkinson"
## [680] "John Witherspoon"
## [681] "Baron J W K A Hupsch von Lontxen"
## [682] "Anders Sparman"
## [683] "George Turner"
## [684] "John Walker"
## [685] "Caleb Whitefoord"
## [686] "Alexander Addison"
## [687] "Alexander Anderson"
## [688] "Absalom Baird"
## [689] "John Beckley"
## [690] "Nicholas L Burmann"
## [691] "Alexander J Dallas"
## [692] "William Ferguson"
## [693] "Albert Gallatin"
## [694] "Benjamin Gloxin"
## [695] "Robert Goldsbourough"
## [696] "John G Grosche"
## [697] "John Hoge"
## [698] "James Anderson"
## [699] "John Luzac"
## [700] "S L Mitchell"
## [701] "Johann A Murray"
## [702] "John Nicholson"
## [703] "Peter S Pallas"
## [704] "John Penington"
## [705] "Thomas Pennant"
## [706] "Peter S Du Ponceau"
## [707] "Edmund Randolph"
## [708] "Andrew Ross"
## [709] "James Ross"
## [710] "John Smilie"
## [711] "Karl P Thunberg"
## [712] "Richard P Barton"
## [713] "Guiseppe Ceracchi"
## [714] "William Currie"
## [715] "Erasmus Darwin"
## [716] "Comte de Antoine R C M La Forest"
## [717] "Anthony Fothergill"
## [718] "David Jackson"
## [719] "John Page"
## [720] "Baron de Ambroise M F J Palisot"
## [721] "Conte Paolo Andreani"
## [722] "John Rouelle"
## [723] "William Smith"
## [724] "Uvo van Troil"
## [725] "Rodolph Valltravers"
## [726] "Nicholas B Waters"
## [727] "Andre F de Coupigny"
## [728] "J Reinhold Forster"
## [729] "George Logan"
## [730] "John W Lottera"
## [731] "David Nassy"
## [732] "Thomas L Shippen"
## [733] "William Waring"
## [734] "David S Erskine"
## [735] "James Greenway"
## [736] "John Nancarrow"
## [737] "Gustaf von Carleson"
## [738] "Archibald Cochrane"
## [739] "Robert Leslie"
## [740] "Val Melscheimer"
## [741] "Tim Pickering"
## [742] "Samuel Wheeler"
## [743] "Rev James Abercrombie"
## [744] "Pierre A Adet"
## [745] "Nathaniel B Bedford"
## [746] "Isaac Briggs"
## [747] "Charles Caldwell"
## [748] "Dr Isaac Cathrall"
## [749] "F H Le Comte"
## [750] "Tench Coxe"
## [751] "Joanne B Cunat"
## [752] "Jean Deveze"
## [753] "Louis E Duhail"
## [754] "Cypriano R Friere"
## [755] "Jacques M le F de Grandpre"
## [756] "Hugh Hodge"
## [757] "Jose de Jaudences"
## [758] "J F Mifflin"
## [759] "William D Peck"
## [760] "Francois A F de la Rochefoucauld Liancourt"
## [761] "Sir James E Smith"
## [762] "Charles M de Talleyrand Perigord"
## [763] "Luis de Urbina"
## [764] "James Woodhouse"
## [765] "William Bache"
## [766] "Samuel Blair"
## [767] "John Guillemard"
## [768] "John Heckewilder"
## [769] "Andrews Everardus Van Braam Houckgeest"
## [770] "Thomas C James"
## [771] "Alexander Martin"
## [772] "Theo C Mozard"
## [773] "John Newnan"
## [774] "Thomas Pinckney"
## [775] "Rich P Smith"
## [776] "Samuel H Smith"
## [777] "John Stuart"
## [778] "Comte Constantin F Chasseboeuf de Volney"
## [779] "Johann F Blumenbach"
## [780] "Julian U Niemcewicz"
## [781] "William Patterson"
## [782] "Giambattista Scandella"
## [783] "Franz A von Zach"
## [784] "William Boys"
## [785] "Joseph Clay"
## [786] "John R Coxe"
## [787] "Samuel Elam"
## [788] "Benjamin H Latrobe"
## [789] "William Maclure"
## [790] "Thomas P Smith"
## [791] "Justus E Bollmann"
## [792] "Samuel Brown"
## [793] "William Dunbar"
## [794] "Sir Robert Liston"
## [795] "Samuel Miller"
## [796] "Pierre S du Pont de Nemours"
## [797] "John R Smith"
## [798] "Francis Blanchet"
## [799] "Samuel Falberg"
## [800] "Jose J de Ferrer"
## [801] "Thomas T Hewson"
## [802] "William Jones"
## [803] "Robert R Livingston"
## [804] "Gustav Paykull"
## [805] "Fran Peyrolon"
## [806] "Alexander Ramirez"
## [807] "William Barnwell"
## [808] "John Church"
## [809] "Thomas Cooper"
## [810] "Valentin de Foronda"
## [811] "Marquis de C M Martinez Casa Irujo"
## [812] "William S Jacobs"
## [813] "Philippe R Roume de St Laurent"
## [814] "Phillippe J Letsom"
## [815] "James Mease"
## [816] "Peter B Olsen"
## [817] "Philip S Physick"
## [818] "Jarvis Roebuck"
## [819] "William Roxburgh"
## [820] "Jean B J Delambre"
## [821] "Robert Gilmore"
## [822] "Meriwether Lewis"
## [823] "Dan Melanderhjelm"
## [824] "Francis Nichols"
## [825] "Eric Prosperin"
## [826] "David Ramsay"
## [827] "Benjamin Thompson"
## [828] "Pedro Caevallos"
## [829] "Antonio J Cavanilles"
## [830] "Zaccheus Collins"
## [831] "Joshua Gilpin"
## [832] "Prince Manuel Godoy"
## [833] "Baron von F H Alexander Humboldt"
## [834] "William Short"
## [835] "Sam Webber"
## [836] "William Hawes"
## [837] "Edward Miller"
## [838] "Samuel Moore"
## [839] "Charles Smith"
## [840] "William Tilghman"
## [841] "F A Vanderkemp"
## [842] "Bushrod Washington"
## [843] "Adrien G Camper"
## [844] "Joseph Cloud"
## [845] "Samuel F Conover"
## [846] "William Dubourg"
## [847] "John Maclean"
## [848] "Martinus van Martius"
## [849] "Joseph Sansom"
## [850] "Francisco de Borja Garcao Stockler"
## [851] "Olof Swartz"
## [852] "Comte Antoine L C Desturr de Tracy"
## [853] "Samuel B Wylie"
## [854] "Nathaniel Chapman"
## [855] "Mahlon Dickerson"
## [856] "John E Forstroem"
## [857] "James Gibson"
## [858] "Ferd R Hassler"
## [859] "George Izard"
## [860] "John McDowell"
## [861] "Ir _ e Du Pont"
## [862] "Comte de Charles P Lasteyrie du Saillant"
## [863] "Horace Binney"
## [864] "Edward Penington"
## [865] "William Staughton"
## [866] "Joel Barlow"
## [867] "Ross Cuthbert"
## [868] "George William Featherstonhaugh"
## [869] "Robert Fulton"
## [870] "Francois A Michaux"
## [871] "Thomas Moore"
## [872] "David B Warden"
## [873] "J H Brinton"
## [874] "John Haighton"
## [875] "William Johnson"
## [876] "William Bentley"
## [877] "John M Good"
## [878] "Louis N Vanquelin"
## [879] "Charles J Wister"
## [880] "Robert Adrain"
## [881] "Benjamin Allen"
## [882] "Jose F Correa da Serra"
## [883] "Robert Walsh"
## [884] "W P C Barton"
## [885] "Nicholas Biddle"
## [886] "Charles Chauncey"
## [887] "Constant Dumeril"
## [888] "Reuben Haines"
## [889] "William Hembel"
## [890] "William T Meredith"
## [891] "Benjamin R Morgan"
## [892] "George Pollock"
## [893] "Anders J Retzius"
## [894] "John Sergeant"
## [895] "Alexander Wilson"
## [896] "Nathaniel Stout Allison"
## [897] "Frederick Beasley"
## [898] "John G Biddle"
## [899] "De Witt Clinton"
## [900] "James Cutbush"
## [901] "John S Dorsey"
## [902] "Thomas Gilpin"
## [903] "John Gummere"
## [904] "John E Hall"
## [905] "Joseph G Swift"
## [906] "James P Wilson"
## [907] "Samuel Colhoun"
## [908] "James Gray"
## [909] "Charles W Hare"
## [910] "Joseph Hartshorne"
## [911] "Joseph Hopkinson"
## [912] "Charles J Ingersoll"
## [913] "Joseph P Norris"
## [914] "Joseph Parrish"
## [915] "John M Scott"
## [916] "Carlo Botta"
## [917] "Jared Mansfield"
## [918] "Joseph Reed"
## [919] "Isaiah Thomas"
## [920] "Gerard Troost"
## [921] "Joseph P F Deleuze"
## [922] "Johann P Frank"
## [923] "William Gaston"
## [924] "Jos von Hammer Purgstall"
## [925] "Charles A Lesueur"
## [926] "William Meade"
## [927] "Charles F Mercer"
## [928] "Jean C de la Metherie"
## [929] "Eugenius Nulty"
## [930] "Thomas Nuttall"
## [931] "George Ord"
## [932] "John C Otto"
## [933] "Richard Rush"
## [934] "Thomas Say"
## [935] "Lewis Schweinitz"
## [936] "Joseph von Sonnenfels"
## [937] "Henry Steinhauer"
## [938] "Edward Troughton"
## [939] "Johann S Vater"
## [940] "John Q Adams"
## [941] "Friedrich Adelung"
## [942] "Nicholas Fuss"
## [943] "Paul Jackson"
## [944] "Josiah Meigs"
## [945] "Noel de la Moriniere"
## [946] "Joseph Swain"
## [947] "Gotthilf Fischer Von Waldheim"
## [948] "John C Warren"
## [949] "Johann A Albers"
## [950] "Henri M Ducrotay de Blainville"
## [951] "Alexandre Brongniart"
## [952] "Redmond Conyngham"
## [953] "Anselme G Desmarest"
## [954] "William P Dewees"
## [955] "John Eberle"
## [956] "Stephan Elliot"
## [957] "L H Girardin"
## [958] "William E Horner"
## [959] "Louis M Langles"
## [960] "Comte de Jean D Lanjuinais"
## [961] "Pierre A Latreille"
## [962] "John Murray"
## [963] "Fred C Schaeffer"
## [964] "Guillaume T Tilesius"
## [965] "Roberts Vaux"
## [966] "Franklin Bache"
## [967] "John J Berzelius"
## [968] "J A Borgnis"
## [969] "William Gibson"
## [970] "Baron von Joseph Hormayr"
## [971] "Samuel F Jarvis"
## [972] "Matthew Lesseps"
## [973] "Isaiah Lukens"
## [974] "William Marsden"
## [975] "Jacques P Merigon de Montgery"
## [976] "William Strickland"
## [977] "Peter Afzelius"
## [978] "Clement C Biddle"
## [979] "Elisha De Butts"
## [980] "Mathew Carey"
## [981] "Langdon Cheves"
## [982] "John B Gibson"
## [983] "Levitt Harris"
## [984] "George A Otis"
## [985] "Count Gustavus Wetterstedt"
## [986] "James Workman"
## [987] "Sir James Wylie"
## [988] "Solomon W Conrad"
## [989] "Jose B de Andrada e Silva"
## [990] "Richard Harlan"
## [991] "Baron von Wilhelm Humboldt"
## [992] "William H Keating"
## [993] "Zacharias Nordmark"
## [994] "Peder Pedersen"
## [995] "Peter Poletica"
## [996] "Condy Raguet"
## [997] "Gottlob E Schultze"
## [998] "Jons Svanberg"
## [999] "Lardner Vanuxem"
## [1000] "Joseph Bonaparte"
## [1001] "Lucien Bonaparte"
## [1002] "Benjamin H Coates"
## [1003] "William B Collyer"
## [1004] "James F Cooper"
## [1005] "William Darlington"
## [1006] "Gaspard Deabbate"
## [1007] "Jean M Duponceau"
## [1008] "Samuel Jackson"
## [1009] "Jason O B Lawrence"
## [1010] "Sir William Lawrence"
## [1011] "Stephen H Long"
## [1012] "Paul de Lovenorn"
## [1013] "William J Macneven"
## [1014] "Baron Charles E Coquebert de Mountbret"
## [1015] "John Plitt"
## [1016] "Heinrich C Schumacher"
## [1017] "Count de Joseph B Survilliers"
## [1018] "Nathaniel A Ware"
## [1019] "Charles Lucien Bonaparte"
## [1020] "Heinrich J Klaproth"
## [1021] "Ivan Krusenstern"
## [1022] "Severin Lorich"
## [1023] "Joseph B McKean"
## [1024] "Alexander Pearson"
## [1025] "Henry Seybert"
## [1026] "Conrad J Temminck"
## [1027] "Charles N Bancker"
## [1028] "John J Bigsby"
## [1029] "Thomas Cadwalader"
## [1030] "Comte de Andre F Miot"
## [1031] "Pierre J M Flourens"
## [1032] "John D Godman"
## [1033] "Joseph R Ingersoll"
## [1034] "John K Kane"
## [1035] "Count John Laval"
## [1036] "Jos_ da Silva Lisboa"
## [1037] "Edward Livingston"
## [1038] "Comte Francois P Real"
## [1039] "Count Nicholas Rumiantzov"
## [1040] "Philip Tidyman"
## [1041] "Lewis Cass"
## [1042] "Samuel Humphreys"
## [1043] "Jakob, Grefve Graberg af Hemso"
## [1044] "Pablo de la Llave"
## [1045] "William McIlvaine"
## [1046] "Charles D Meigs"
## [1047] "William Schaler"
## [1048] "William Shaler"
## [1049] "Henri C G de Struve"
## [1050] "John L Tiarks"
## [1051] "James Brown"
## [1052] "Marcus Bull"
## [1053] "John W Dalman"
## [1054] "George Emlen"
## [1055] "Joachim P C Giraldez"
## [1056] "John K Mitchell"
## [1057] "Joel R Poinsett"
## [1058] "Rene La Roche"
## [1059] "James Rush"
## [1060] "Charles Tait"
## [1061] "Honore Torombert"
## [1062] "John P Wetherill"
## [1063] "Giovanni M Zecchinelli"
## [1064] "Samuel Betton"
## [1065] "Jose M Bustamante"
## [1066] "Jose M Dantas"
## [1067] "Robert E Griffith"
## [1068] "Thomas Harris"
## [1069] "Henry J Anderson"
## [1070] "Isaac Lea"
## [1071] "Samuel G Morton"
## [1072] "Charles Pickering"
## [1073] "James Renwick"
## [1074] "Jose M Salazar"
## [1075] "Samuel Harrison Smith"
## [1076] "Andrew Hunter"
## [1077] "John Law"
## [1078] "Alexander McWilliams"
## [1079] "Edward Cutbush"
## [1080] "Thomas Law"
## [1081] "Andrew Jackson"
## [1082] "John C Calhoun"
## [1083] "Henry Clay"
## [1084] "William H Crawford"
## [1085] "Samuel D Ingham"
## [1086] "James Barbour"
## [1087] "Samuel L Southard"
## [1088] "John M Berrien"
## [1089] "William Wirt"
## [1090] "John McLean"
## [1091] "William T Barry"
## [1092] "Simon Bernard"
## [1093] "George Gibson"
## [1094] "Alexander Macomb"
## [1095] "George Bomford"
## [1096] "Nathan Towson"
## [1097] "Joseph Lovell"
## [1098] "J A Brereton"
## [1099] "John Rodgers"
## [1100] "Thomas Tingey"
## [1101] "Charles Wilkes"
## [1102] "Bailey Washington"
## [1103] "Buckner Thruston"
## [1104] "Richard Bland Lee"
## [1105] "Nathaniel P Causin"
## [1106] "Elias B Caldwell"
## [1107] "William Brent"
## [1108] "George Watterston"
## [1109] "Phineas Bradley"
## [1110] "Samuel Lane"
## [1111] "William Noland"
## [1112] "Matthew St Clair Clarke"
## [1113] "Asbury Dickins"
## [1114] "Thomas L Thurston"
## [1115] "Benjamin Homans"
## [1116] "William Lambert"
## [1117] "William Elliot"
## [1118] "Joseph Anderson"
## [1119] "John Underwood"
## [1120] "Nathaniel Cutting"
## [1121] "Robert King"
## [1122] "Isaac Roberdeau"
## [1123] "William Hewitt,"
## [1124] "Thomas Munroe"
## [1125] "William Prout"
## [1126] "Robert Brent"
## [1127] "Daniel Rapine"
## [1128] "James H Blake"
## [1129] "Thomas Carbery"
## [1130] "Roger C Weightman"
## [1131] "Joseph Gales, jr"
## [1132] "John P VanNess"
## [1133] "William A Bradley"
## [1134] "Peter Force"
## [1135] "William W Seaton"
## [1136] "Richard Wallach"
## [1137] "B S Bohrer"
## [1138] "James S Gunnell"
## [1139] "Thomas Henderson"
## [1140] "Henry Huntt"
## [1141] "George May"
## [1142] "Frederick May"
## [1143] "Richard Randall"
## [1144] "Thomas Sewall"
## [1145] "John T Shaaf"
## [1146] "Thomas Sims"
## [1147] "JohnM Thomas"
## [1148] "Tobias Watkins"
## [1149] "Nicholas Worthington"
## [1150] "Andrew Bigelow"
## [1151] "Obadiah B Brown"
## [1152] "John N Campbell"
## [1153] "Ira Chase"
## [1154] "R R Gurley"
## [1155] "James Laurie"
## [1156] "Robert Little"
## [1157] "William Matthews"
## [1158] "Isaac Orr"
## [1159] "Archibald Henderson"
## [1160] "John McClelland"
## [1161] "William Tatham"
## [1162] "John Coyle jr"
## [1163] "Samuel Eliot, jr"
## [1164] "Tobias Lear"
## [1165] "John Stretch"
## [1166] "Timothy Winn"
## [1167] "Joseph Mechlin"
## [1168] "Thomas P Jones"
## [1169] "Edmund Law"
## [1170] "Benjamin L Lear"
## [1171] "Ferdinand R Hassler"
## [1172] "John J Abert"
## [1173] "Charles Worthington"
## [1174] "John T Shaff"
## [1175] "Thomas B Sim"
## [1176] "Joel T Gustine"
## [1177] "Elisha Harrison"
## [1178] "Peregrine Warfield"
## [1179] "George Clark"
## [1180] "John Harrison"
## [1181] "Benjamin S Bohrer"
## [1182] "Samuel Horsley"
## [1183] "Nicholas W Worthington"
## [1184] "James T Johnson"
## [1185] "Richard Weightman"
## [1186] "George W May"
## [1187] "Robert French"
## [1188] "Samuel L Mitchill"
## [1189] "John Spence"
## [1190] "William Beans"
## [1191] "John H Chausepie"
## [1192] "John McClellan"
## [1193] "William M Mercer"
## [1194] "Nathaniel Potter"
## [1195] "Phillip S Physick"
## [1196] "Daniel Coney"
## [1197] "Robert B Semple"
## [1198] "Howard Maloom"
## [1199] "Heman Lincoln"
## [1200] "Thomas B Ripley"
## [1201] "Lucius Bolles"
## [1202] "Daniel Sharp"
## [1203] "Jonathan Going"
## [1204] "H Lincoln"
## [1205] "J D Knowles"
## [1206] "G F Davis"
## [1207] "Bela Jacobs"
## [1208] "Abiel Fisher"
## [1209] "F Wayland Jr "
## [1210] "Irah Chase"
## [1211] "Stephen Gano"
## [1212] "James Loring"
## [1213] "B C Grafton"
## [1214] "Henry Jackson"
## [1215] "Jonathan Bacheller"
## [1216] "Levi Farwell"
## [1217] "Joseph W Sawyer"
## [1218] "Jonathan Merriam"
## [1219] "John Conant"
## [1220] "David Benedict"
## [1221] "William Gammell"
## [1222] "Asa Wilcox"
## [1223] "S H Cone"
## [1224] "J C Murphy"
## [1225] "R Thompson"
## [1226] "William Colgate"
## [1227] "Archibald Maclay"
## [1228] "Aaron Perkins"
## [1229] "Thomas Stokes"
## [1230] "Samuel W Lynd"
## [1231] "Daniel Haskell"
## [1232] "Elon Galuska"
## [1233] "Daniel Putnam"
## [1234] "H Malcom"
## [1235] "John Stanford"
## [1236] "Thomas Garniss"
## [1237] "Thomas Purser"
## [1238] "Joshua Gilbert"
## [1239] "Charles G Sommers"
## [1240] "William C Hawley"
## [1241] "Rufus Babcock"
## [1242] "Nathaniel Kendrick"
## [1243] "Lewis Leonard"
## [1244] "Stephen Olmsted"
## [1245] "Thomas Brown"
## [1246] "James E Welch"
## [1247] "Samuel Eastman"
## [1248] "John M Peck"
## [1249] "John L Dagg"
## [1250] "David Jones"
## [1251] "William E Ashton"
## [1252] "Joseph Maylin"
## [1253] "O B Brown"
## [1254] "G S Webb"
## [1255] "Isaac Clark"
## [1256] "Samuel Cornelius"
## [1257] "Luther Rice"
## [1258] "Joseph Thaw"
## [1259] "William Ruggles"
## [1260] "George Patterson"
## [1261] "Enoch Reynolds"
## [1262] "Robert Ryland"
## [1263] "John Kerr"
## [1264] "William Crane"
## [1265] "Eli Ball"
## [1266] "H C Thompson"
## [1267] "Noah Davis"
## [1268] "Joseph B Cook"
## [1269] "William B Johnson"
## [1270] "Charles D Mallory"
## [1271] "James Graham"
## [1272] "Jesse Mercer"
## [1273] "William T Brantley"
## [1274] "Adiel Sherwood"
## [1275] "Abner Davis"
## [1276] "Pardon Bowen"
## [1277] "Mason F Cogswell"
## [1278] "Astley Cooper"
## [1279] "Ammi R Cutter"
## [1280] "Manassah Cutler"
## [1281] "John R Farre"
## [1282] "John Feron"
## [1283] "Peter Green"
## [1284] "Lemuel Hopkins"
## [1285] "George Jones"
## [1286] "Adam Kuhn"
## [1287] "Lemuel Kollock"
## [1288] "John C Lettsom"
## [1289] "Charles McKnight"
## [1290] "John Morgan"
## [1291] "John Osborne"
## [1292] "William Shippen"
## [1293] "Isaac Center"
## [1294] "Nathan Smith"
## [1295] "Elias Willard"
## [1296] "Edward Wyer"
## [1297] "James Wylie"
## [1298] "Henry Wells"
## [1299] "Elisha Whitney,"
## [1300] "William S Williams"
## [1301] "Thomas Williams"
## [1302] "Tapley Wyeth"
## [1303] "Joseph Whipple"
## [1304] "William Whiting"
## [1305] "Charles W Winship"
## [1306] "Sylvester Woodbridge"
## [1307] "Elias Weld"
## [1308] "Timothy Wellington"
## [1309] "Silas Wheelock"
## [1310] "Isaac Warren"
## [1311] "John Williams"
## [1312] "Samuel Weed"
## [1313] "Noah Whitman Jr "
## [1314] "Jonathan Wild Jr "
## [1315] "Daniel Wardwell"
## [1316] "Eli Wing"
## [1317] "William J Walker"
## [1318] "Peter Whitney"
## [1319] "Joseph Warren"
## [1320] "George Willard"
## [1321] "John W Webster"
## [1322] "Orrin Wright"
## [1323] "Jonathan Wales Jr "
## [1324] "Leonard Williams"
## [1325] "William C Whittredge"
## [1326] "Seth Washburn"
## [1327] "Asa G Welch"
## [1328] "George Wilkins"
## [1329] "James M Whittemore"
## [1330] "Abel Wilder"
## [1331] "John D Wells"
## [1332] "Samuel Young"
## [1333] "Solmon D Townsend"
## [1334] "David Townsend"
## [1335] "Thomas Thaxter"
## [1336] "Phillip Theobold"
## [1337] "Joseph Torrey"
## [1338] "William Towner"
## [1339] "Simon Tufts"
## [1340] "Gridley Thaxter"
## [1341] "Grosvenor Tarbell"
## [1342] "Phillip E Theobold"
## [1343] "Calvin Tilden"
## [1344] "Enoch S Tappan"
## [1345] "Charles Trafton"
## [1346] "Piatt B Tyler"
## [1347] "Jacob Tewksbury"
## [1348] "Ezekiel Thaxter"
## [1349] "Stephen Thayer"
## [1350] "Samuel Titus"
## [1351] "Alexander Thayer"
## [1352] "Arad Thompson"
## [1353] "Amos Taylor,"
## [1354] "John Vanhorn"
## [1355] "John Walton"
## [1356] "Robert Worthington"
## [1357] "Charles W Wilder"
## [1358] "Stephen W Williams"
## [1359] "Israel Whiton"
## [1360] "George Ware"
## [1361] "Richard Wells"
## [1362] "Daniel Stone"
## [1363] "Nathaniel Swift"
## [1364] "Richard C Shannon"
## [1365] "Luther Stearns"
## [1366] "Nathaniel Smith, Jr "
## [1367] "Joseph Sampson"
## [1368] "Moses Sweet"
## [1369] "James H Sargent"
## [1370] "John Starkweather"
## [1371] "Joseph L Stevens"
## [1372] "Richard S Spofford"
## [1373] "Caleb H Stickney"
## [1374] "Thomas Sears"
## [1375] "Stillman Spaulding"
## [1376] "Thaddeus Spaulding"
## [1377] "Thomas Sturtevant"
## [1378] "Paul Spooner"
## [1379] "Woodbridge Strong"
## [1380] "Samuel A Shurtleff"
## [1381] "William Sweetser"
## [1382] "John M Smith"
## [1383] "Caleb H Snow"
## [1384] "Jonathan Stone"
## [1385] "Renjamin Seabury"
## [1386] "John P Spooner"
## [1387] "Jerome V C Smith"
## [1388] "Robert B Severance"
## [1389] "Lyndon A Smith"
## [1390] "Asa Story"
## [1391] "Joseph Shed"
## [1392] "Stephen H Shelding"
## [1393] "John D Treadwell"
## [1394] "Calvin Thomas"
## [1395] "Robert Thaxter"
## [1396] "Daniel Thurber"
## [1397] "William H Tyler"
## [1398] "Abraham R Thompson"
## [1399] "George C Shattuck"
## [1400] "Alpheus F Stone"
## [1401] "John Stone"
## [1402] "Benjamin Shurtleff"
## [1403] "Jeremiah Spofford"
## [1404] "Jeremy Stimpson"
## [1405] "William Stone"
## [1406] "William Sheldon"
## [1407] "John Stockbridge"
## [1408] "Enos Smith"
## [1409] "Peter Snow"
## [1410] "Daniel Shute"
## [1411] "Jonathan Sibley"
## [1412] "Nathaniel Saltonstall"
## [1413] "Samuel Savage"
## [1414] "Remembrance Sheldon"
## [1415] "Amos Spofford"
## [1416] "Ezra Starkweather"
## [1417] "Foster Swift"
## [1418] "John B Swett"
## [1419] "Charles Stockbridge"
## [1420] "John Swett,"
## [1421] "Elisha Story,"
## [1422] "Erastus Sargeant"
## [1423] "Marshall Spring"
## [1424] "Moses D Spofford"
## [1425] "Ebenezer Starr"
## [1426] "John Scammel"
## [1427] "Issachar Snell"
## [1428] "Jonathan Shearer"
## [1429] "Lawrence Sprague"
## [1430] "Daniel Swan"
## [1431] "Ephraim Stone"
## [1432] "Daniel Porter"
## [1433] "Abner Phelps"
## [1434] "William Parkhurst"
## [1435] "Benjamin Pond Jr "
## [1436] "George Parkman"
## [1437] "Josiah Prescott"
## [1438] "Gustavus D Peck"
## [1439] "Fredrick A Parker"
## [1440] "Sylvanus Plympton"
## [1441] "Silas Pearson"
## [1442] "Nathaniel Pierce"
## [1443] "Moses Phelps"
## [1444] "Thomas Phipps"
## [1445] "Nathan Perry"
## [1446] "Thomas W Parsons"
## [1447] "Sturgis Phinney"
## [1448] "Augustus T Parker"
## [1449] "John Randall"
## [1450] "Benjamin Rogers"
## [1451] "Alexander Read"
## [1452] "Isaac Rand,"
## [1453] "Abijah Richardson"
## [1454] "Thomas Rice"
## [1455] "Isaac Rand Jr "
## [1456] "Tilley Rice"
## [1457] "Daniel Rose"
## [1458] "Peter G Robbins"
## [1459] "John Revere"
## [1460] "Dean Robinson"
## [1461] "Thomas Richmond"
## [1462] "Edward Reynolds Jr "
## [1463] "Chandler Robbins Jr "
## [1464] "George Russell"
## [1465] "George Osgood"
## [1466] "George Osgood Jr "
## [1467] "Joseph O Osgood"
## [1468] "Daniel Oliver"
## [1469] "David Osgood"
## [1470] "Benjamin Osgood"
## [1471] "Amos Parker"
## [1472] "Abel L Peirson"
## [1473] "Thomas I Parker"
## [1474] "Thomas Pickman"
## [1475] "James Pecker"
## [1476] "Oliver Partridge"
## [1477] "Daniel Pierce"
## [1478] "Charles Pyncheon"
## [1479] "William Porter"
## [1480] "Samuel Perry"
## [1481] "Abiel Pearson"
## [1482] "Martin Phelps"
## [1483] "Cyrus Perkins"
## [1484] "Benjamin Page Jr "
## [1485] "James Parker"
## [1486] "Amariah Preston"
## [1487] "Samuel Prentis"
## [1488] "Benjamin Parker"
## [1489] "Nathaniel Peabody"
## [1490] "Ebenezer Poor"
## [1491] "Jonathan Page"
## [1492] "Charles Proctor"
## [1493] "William Payson"
## [1494] "Edmund C Peet"
## [1495] "Freeman Perry"
## [1496] "Nathaniel S Prentiss"
## [1497] "Nathaniel Preston"
## [1498] "Alfred Perry"
## [1499] "Ariel Mann"
## [1500] "John Merrill"
## [1501] "Joseph Manning"
## [1502] "Thomas Manning"
## [1503] "Asa Miles"
## [1504] "Stephen Munroe"
## [1505] "Thaddeus M Carty"
## [1506] "Warham Mather,"
## [1507] "Charles Macomber"
## [1508] "Reuben D Mussey"
## [1509] "lsaac Mulliken"
## [1510] "Jotham Moulton"
## [1511] "Caleb Miller"
## [1512] "Paul R Metcalf"
## [1513] "Francis Moore"
## [1514] "Moses Mason Jr "
## [1515] "James McFarland"
## [1516] "Peter Mackie"
## [1517] "Thomas Mason"
## [1518] "Andrew Mackie"
## [1519] "Silas Marshall"
## [1520] "J W Mulliken"
## [1521] "Samuel Nye"
## [1522] "Andrew Nicholls"
## [1523] "Jonathan Newell"
## [1524] "Nathan Noyes"
## [1525] "Nathaniel Niles"
## [1526] "Paul L Nichols"
## [1527] "Reuben Nims"
## [1528] "Benjamin L Oliver"
## [1529] "Hector Orr"
## [1530] "Cushing Otis"
## [1531] "Joseph Osgood"
## [1532] "Jonathan Osgood"
## [1533] "Samuel Kingsbury"
## [1534] "Ashbel Kidder"
## [1535] "Seth Knowlton"
## [1536] "Francis Kittredge"
## [1537] "Aaron King"
## [1538] "Moses Kidder"
## [1539] "Henry Kittredge"
## [1540] "Gideon Kibbee"
## [1541] "Pierson T Kendall"
## [1542] "Paul Kittredge"
## [1543] "Seth Lathrop"
## [1544] "George Leonard"
## [1545] "Isaac Lincoln"
## [1546] "John Linn"
## [1547] "Lewis Le Prelate"
## [1548] "William Lamb"
## [1549] "Jonathan Leonard"
## [1550] "Eldad Lewis"
## [1551] "Moses Little"
## [1552] "Abraham Lowe"
## [1553] "John Long"
## [1554] "Lemuel Lebarron"
## [1555] "Dan Lamb"
## [1556] "Timothy Little"
## [1557] "Joel Lyons"
## [1558] "William Lyman"
## [1559] "Rufus Longley"
## [1560] "Edward A Lummus"
## [1561] "Nathaniel Miller"
## [1562] "Samuel Manning"
## [1563] "Ammi R Mitchell"
## [1564] "Mathew Mayhew"
## [1565] "Luther M Harris,"
## [1566] "Thaddeus M Harris"
## [1567] "Appleton Howe"
## [1568] "I Stearns Hurd"
## [1569] "Isaac Hodges"
## [1570] "Abishai Howard"
## [1571] "Samuel Hart"
## [1572] "Edward A Holyoke Jr "
## [1573] "Anson Hooker"
## [1574] "William Ingalls"
## [1575] "CharIes Jarvis"
## [1576] "John Jeffries"
## [1577] "Timothy L Jennison"
## [1578] "Horatio Jones"
## [1579] "Benjamin James"
## [1580] "John James"
## [1581] "Daniel James"
## [1582] "Jonathan G Johnson"
## [1583] "Samuel Johnson"
## [1584] "Asa Jones"
## [1585] "Elisha James Jr"
## [1586] "Bela B Jones"
## [1587] "William Kneeland"
## [1588] "Joseph Kittredge"
## [1589] "Thomas Kittredge"
## [1590] "Giles C Kellogg"
## [1591] "Thomas Kast"
## [1592] "Aaron Kinsman"
## [1593] "Charles Kittredge"
## [1594] "John B Kittredge"
## [1595] "Jacob Kittredge"
## [1596] "Peirson Kendall"
## [1597] "William Holland"
## [1598] "John C Howard"
## [1599] "Gad Hitchcock"
## [1600] "Gad Hitchcock, Jr "
## [1601] "Joseph Hunt,"
## [1602] "John Hay,"
## [1603] "Abner Hearsy"
## [1604] "John Homans"
## [1605] "Estes Howe"
## [1606] "Samuel Holten"
## [1607] "Marius Howe"
## [1608] "John Hubbard"
## [1609] "Samuel Hemenway"
## [1610] "John A Hyde"
## [1611] "Walter Hunnewell"
## [1612] "Abraham Haskell Jr "
## [1613] "Abiel Hall"
## [1614] "Joseph Huse"
## [1615] "Abner Howe"
## [1616] "Zadock Howe"
## [1617] "Oliver Hubbard"
## [1618] "Abiel Hall, Jr "
## [1619] "Uriah Hagar"
## [1620] "John Hastings"
## [1621] "Cornelius Holland"
## [1622] "Eli Hall"
## [1623] "James Hewins,"
## [1624] "Israel Hildreth Jr "
## [1625] "Amory Hunting"
## [1626] "Loammi Harrington"
## [1627] "George Hooker"
## [1628] "Rufus Hathaway"
## [1629] "Vincent Holcomb"
## [1630] "Levi W Humphries"
## [1631] "James Holland"
## [1632] "Benjamin W Hildreth"
## [1633] "Charles T Hildreth"
## [1634] "Joseph Gilman"
## [1635] "Jacob Gates"
## [1636] "Roland Gelston"
## [1637] "Joseph Gardner"
## [1638] "WilIiam Gamage Jr "
## [1639] "John Green,"
## [1640] "Jones Godfrey"
## [1641] "OIiver Griswold"
## [1642] "David A Grosvenor"
## [1643] "Daniel Green"
## [1644] "Moses Gage"
## [1645] "Otis Goodman"
## [1646] "Jacob Goodwin"
## [1647] "Josiah Goodhue"
## [1648] "Peter Goodnow"
## [1649] "Daniel Gould"
## [1650] "William Gordon"
## [1651] "John F Gardner"
## [1652] "Joshua Green"
## [1653] "Edward A Holyoke"
## [1654] "Abiel Heywood,"
## [1655] "Richard Hazeltine"
## [1656] "Amos Holbrook"
## [1657] "Abraham Haskell"
## [1658] "William Hooker"
## [1659] "Josiah Howe"
## [1660] "John Hart"
## [1661] "David Hunt"
## [1662] "Benjamin F Heywood"
## [1663] "Jacob Holmes"
## [1664] "Nathan Hayward"
## [1665] "Isaac Hurd"
## [1666] "Lemuel Hayward"
## [1667] "Joshua Frost"
## [1668] "Royal Fowler"
## [1669] "Joseph Fiske"
## [1670] "Austin Flint"
## [1671] "Joseph H Flint"
## [1672] "Dudley Fulsome"
## [1673] "Enoch Faulkner"
## [1674] "Samuel Farnsworth"
## [1675] "Noah Fearing"
## [1676] "John Field"
## [1677] "John Fleet"
## [1678] "Daniel Fogg"
## [1679] "Francis Foxcraft"
## [1680] "Nathaniel Freeman"
## [1681] "John Frink"
## [1682] "John Flagg"
## [1683] "Noah Fyefield"
## [1684] "James Foster"
## [1685] "Abel Fox"
## [1686] "Josiah D Foster"
## [1687] "Chandler Flagg"
## [1688] "Thomas Foster"
## [1689] "Andrew Foster"
## [1690] "Seth Fobes,"
## [1691] "Amos Farnsworth"
## [1692] "Elijah J Ford"
## [1693] "Edward Flint"
## [1694] "Timothy Fisher"
## [1695] "Josiah F Flagg"
## [1696] "James Gardner"
## [1697] "John Green"
## [1698] "William Gamage"
## [1699] "George Baker"
## [1700] "John M Brewster"
## [1701] "Nehemiah Cleaveland"
## [1702] "John G Coffin"
## [1703] "Henry H Childs"
## [1704] "James P Chaplin"
## [1705] "Daniel Collins"
## [1706] "Benjamin Curtis"
## [1707] "Timothy Childs"
## [1708] "John Cummings"
## [1709] "Abijah Cheever"
## [1710] "Hezekiah Clark"
## [1711] "Nathaniel Coffin,"
## [1712] "William Coffin"
## [1713] "Charles Coffin"
## [1714] "Robert Cutler"
## [1715] "William Cutler,"
## [1716] "Jonathan Crane"
## [1717] "Reuben Champion"
## [1718] "Samuel Clark"
## [1719] "Eleazar Clap"
## [1720] "Chester Cowles"
## [1721] "Rufus Cowles"
## [1722] "Isaac G Cutler"
## [1723] "Samuel Church,"
## [1724] "Samuel Clesson"
## [1725] "Caleb Chapin"
## [1726] "Atherton Clark"
## [1727] "Benjamin Chandler"
## [1728] "Robert Carr"
## [1729] "Seth Chandler"
## [1730] "Philip Bryant"
## [1731] "Moses Baker"
## [1732] "Elliot Beckwith"
## [1733] "Anson Bates"
## [1734] "Nathaniel Bemis"
## [1735] "Henry Bagg"
## [1736] "Stephen Ball"
## [1737] "Samuel Barstow"
## [1738] "Parley Barton"
## [1739] "Erastus Beach"
## [1740] "Royal Brewster"
## [1741] "Asa Bucknam"
## [1742] "Artemas Bullard"
## [1743] "Ephraim Buck"
## [1744] "Stephen Bates"
## [1745] "David Bacon"
## [1746] "Joseph Bossuet"
## [1747] "Benjamin D Bartlett"
## [1748] "Benjamin Bradford"
## [1749] "Caleb Boutelle"
## [1750] "Ira Bryant"
## [1751] "Williams Bradford"
## [1752] "Silas Blake"
## [1753] "James Bowen"
## [1754] "Daniel Brigham"
## [1755] "Reuben Bell"
## [1756] "Artemas Brown"
## [1757] "Joseph Bullard"
## [1758] "John S Bartlett"
## [1759] "Silas Brown"
## [1760] "Asaph Byam"
## [1761] "William Bridgman"
## [1762] "Oliver Bliss"
## [1763] "Leavit Bates"
## [1764] "Gamaliel Bradford"
## [1765] "William Ballard"
## [1766] "Thomas Boulton"
## [1767] "Benjamin Austin"
## [1768] "Jason Ayres"
## [1769] "Zabdiel B Adams"
## [1770] "Helaz Alvoord"
## [1771] "John Brooks"
## [1772] "John Bartlett"
## [1773] "Sthphen Batcheller Jr "
## [1774] "Amos Bancroft"
## [1775] "Benjamin Bill"
## [1776] "Nathaniel Bradstreet"
## [1777] "Thomas Bucklin"
## [1778] "John B Brown"
## [1779] "Josiah Batchelder"
## [1780] "Hubbard Bartlett"
## [1781] "Samuel Bugbee"
## [1782] "Hugo Burghardt"
## [1783] "Asa Burbank,"
## [1784] "*Josiah Bartlett"
## [1785] "William Baylies II"
## [1786] "Thomas Babbit"
## [1787] "Benjamin Brown"
## [1788] "Asa Bullard"
## [1789] "Alvan Bacon"
## [1790] "Joshua Barker"
## [1791] "Oliver Brewster"
## [1792] "Horace Bean"
## [1793] "Peter Bryant"
## [1794] "Jeremiah Barker"
## [1795] "Josiah W Brewster"
## [1796] "William Buel"
## [1797] "Jesse Billow"
## [1798] "Edmund Buxton"
## [1799] "George Boles"
## [1800] "Gideon Bristow"
## [1801] "Calvin Briggs"
## [1802] "Ebenezer Alden"
## [1803] "Willard Arms"
## [1804] "Israel Allen"
## [1805] "Nathaniel W Appleton"
## [1806] "William Aspinwall"
## [1807] "Moses Appleton"
## [1808] "NathanieI Ames"
## [1809] "Israel Alherton"
## [1810] "Benjamin Adams"
## [1811] "Peter Adams"
## [1812] "William Aspinwall Jr "
## [1813] "Luther Allen"
## [1814] "Silas Allen"
## [1815] "Ebenezer Ames"
## [1816] "Samuel Ayer"
## [1817] "Moses Ayer"
## [1818] "John Avery Jr "
## [1819] "Joseph Barrell"
## [1820] "Martin Brimmer"
## [1821] "John Codman"
## [1822] "Edward Cutts"
## [1823] "Thomas Durfee"
## [1824] "Moses Gill"
## [1825] "Stephen Higginson"
## [1826] "Jonathan Mason"
## [1827] "Jonathan Mason Jr "
## [1828] "Azor Orne"
## [1829] "Samuel Philips"
## [1830] "Thomas Russel"
## [1831] "Samuel Salisbury"
## [1832] "David Sears"
## [1833] "James Sullivan"
## [1834] "Thomas Winthrop"
## [1835] "Osborne Spriss"
## [1836] "Thompson Mason"
## [1837] "David Wiley"
## [1838] "John Mason"
## [1839] "Charles Carroll"
## [1840] "Joseph Kent"
## [1841] "George Washington Parke Custis"
## [1842] "AAAS"
## [1843] "APS"
## [1844] "CIPAS"
## [1845] "MSDC"
## [1846] "Baptist General Convention"
## [1847] "MMS"
## [1848] "MSPA"
## [1849] "CAS"bipartite.mapping(data_members)## $res
## [1] TRUE
##
## $type
## [1] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [12] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [144] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [188] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [199] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [210] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [221] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [232] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [243] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [254] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [265] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [276] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [287] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [298] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [309] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [320] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [331] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [342] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [353] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [364] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [375] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [386] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [397] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [419] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [430] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [441] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [452] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [518] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [529] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [540] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [551] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [562] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [573] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [584] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [595] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [606] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [617] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [628] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [639] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [650] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [661] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [672] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [683] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [694] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [705] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [716] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [727] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [738] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [749] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [760] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [771] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [782] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [793] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [804] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [815] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [826] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [859] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [870] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [881] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [925] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [1024] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [1244] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1255] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [1288] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
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## [1310] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1321] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1332] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1343] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1354] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1365] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1376] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1387] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1398] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1409] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1420] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1431] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1442] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1453] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1464] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1475] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1486] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1497] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1508] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1519] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1530] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1541] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1552] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1563] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1574] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1585] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1596] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1607] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1618] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1629] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1640] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1651] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1662] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1673] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1684] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1695] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1706] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1717] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1728] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1739] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1750] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1761] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1772] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1783] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1794] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1805] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1816] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1827] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
## [1838] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
## [1849] TRUEV(data_members)$type <- bipartite.mapping(data_members)$type
is.bipartite(data_members)## [1] TRUEplot(data_members, layout = layout.bipartite, vertex.label = NA)
title("Suporters of Founding a National Univesity", sub = "A bipartite layout of members and organizations",cex.main = 2, font.main= 4, col.main= "blue", cex.sub = 0.75, font.sub = 3, col.sub = "red")
Visually this is not very helpful except that the vertexes are now grouped properly. The top group has all of the names of the people while the bottom vertices are the organizations. They are all linked by the grey lines. Although this helpful to explain the process we are no closer to understanding the historical questions at hand.
After creating another function called
full_members
we can run our bipartite projection function and use the data_members
full_members <- bipartite.projection(data_members)We may want to use this to run the second projection our our bipartite graph. The first projection was just of the people. The second will be the organizations.
plot(full_members$proj2)
title("Suporters of Founding a National University", sub = "Just the Organizations",cex.main = 2, font.main= 4, col.main= "blue", cex.sub = 2, font.sub = 3, col.sub = "red")
This is better. It shows the Columbian Agricultural Society alone and unconnected to any of the other institutions. It also shows that the Baptist General Convention, responsibile for founding the Columbian College in D.C., is further away from the other organizations but still connected. In fact, it is connected to The American Philosophical Society, the Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences, and to the Massachusetts Medical Society. Still, we don’t know if these links are significant. The way we can find this out is to assign a function that project weights to the edges that link these vertices together. This is done here:
E(full_members$proj2)## Edge sequence:
##
## [1] APS -- AAAS
## [2] MMS -- AAAS
## [3] MSPA -- AAAS
## [4] MSDC -- AAAS
## [5] CIPAS -- AAAS
## [6] CIPAS -- APS
## [7] MSDC -- APS
## [8] MMS -- APS
## [9] MSPA -- APS
## [10] Baptist General Convention -- APS
## [11] MMS -- CIPAS
## [12] Baptist General Convention -- CIPAS
## [13] MSDC -- CIPAS
## [14] MMS -- MSDC
## [15] MMS -- Baptist General Convention
## [16] MSPA -- MMSE(full_members$proj2)$weight## [1] 64 44 10 4 9 14 7 15 1 1 2 1 6 7 1 5When we run that command we can see how many shared members exist between the vertices. This data is displayed in the console. The Baptist General Convention shared members with those three organizations is 1. Therefore there is one person that is creating the connection. Still, it is useful to graph it.
plot(full_members$proj2, edge.width = E(full_members$proj2)$weight)
title("Suporters of Founding a National University", sub = "Weighted by Shared Members",cex.main = 2, font.main= 4, col.main= "blue", cex.sub = 2, font.sub = 3, col.sub = "red")
This is still a little difficult to see so the final network graph can be cleaned up.
plot(full_members$proj2, edge.width = E(full_members$proj2)$weight*0.2, layout = layout.fruchterman.reingold(full_members$proj2,
weights = E(full_members$proj2)$weight),edge.label.cex=1,vertex.shape="circle",edge.color="red", vertex.size = 8, vertex.color="lightblue", asp=0, margin=0, vertex.label.dist = 0, vertex.label.cex = .5)
title("Organizations Supporting the Founding of a National University", sub = "Weighted by Shared Members",cex.main = 2, font.main= 2, col.main= "blue", cex.sub = 2, font.sub = 3, col.sub = "red") 
This chart is much more effective. It demonstrates clear conntections between the APS and the AAAS. This has always been suggested by scholars but is confirmed through this process. Also there is an interesting and important connection that exists between the AAAS and the MMS that deserves significant attention. Most works that focus on the history of science in New England have focused on their attention to astronomy and mathmatics. The relationship to the burgeoning medical profession may offer significant connections to natural history and chemistry since doctors are often interested in pharmacology which is reliant on these studies. Also the regional questions of how associations develop is an interesting issue to explore further. As we can see the CIPAS is connected to both the Philadelphia based APS the Massachusetts based AAAS and the MSDC. What is clear is that the Baptist General Convention group had very thin connections with the scientific institutions suggesting that this group sought had little shared interests with the others. It will be interesting to explore this further by adding more organizations and more members names.
Conclusion
This chart is much more effective. It demonstrates clear connections between the APS and the AAAS. This has always been suggested by scholars but is confirmed through this process. Also there is an interesting and important connection that exists between the AAAS and the MMS that deserves significant attention. Most works that focus on the history of science in New England have focused on their attention to astronomy and mathematics. The relationship to the burgeoning medical profession may offer significant connections to natural history and chemistry since doctors are often interested in pharmacology which is reliant on these studies. Also the regional questions of how associations develop is an interesting issue to explore further. As we can see the CIPAS is connected to both the Philadelphia based APS the Massachusetts based AAAS and the MSDC. What is clear is that the Baptist General Convention group had very thin connections with the scientific institutions suggesting that this group sought had little shared interests with the others. It will be interesting to explore this further by adding more organizations and more members names.
In the end, this project does not provide definitive answers to any questions however it is successful in demonstrating that visualization strategies can be useful for providing refined questions for further research. It also offers significant opportunities for scholars to find a new use for old sources. These sources have been sitting on shelves, in boxes, or sometimes are available online however they have been unusable due to the limited ability of people to draw the thousands of connections between the hundreds of organizations. As a result, scholars may be able to provide more nuance to their answers therefore enhancing our story of the past.
References
Selected Books and Articles
Castel, Albert. “The Founding Fathers and the Vision of a National University.” History of Education Quarterly 4, no. 4 (Winter 1964): 280–302.
Columbia, Medical Society of the District of. History of the Medical Society of the District of Columbia: 1817-1909. The Society, 1909. https://ia600308.us.archive.org/14/items/historyofmedical00medi/historyofmedical00medi.pdf.
Green, Constance McLaughlin. Washington: Village and Capital, 1800-1878. Vol. 1. 2 vols. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1962.
Greene, John C. American Science in the Age of Jefferson. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1984.
Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848. Oxford History of the United States.New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Kerber, Linda K. Federalists in Dissent; Imagery and Ideology in Jeffersonian America. Ithaca [N.Y.]: Cornell University Press, 1970.
Mullen, Lincoln. “Network Analysis in History” In Digital History Methods in R. http://dh-r.lincolnmullen.com/networks.html. Accessed December 9, 2014.
Selected Data Sources
American Academy of Arts and Sciences https://www.amacad.org/content/members/members.aspx American Philosophical Society http://www.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?browse-all=yes;sort=creator Scholarly Societies Project http://www.scholarly-societies.org/